Cao Cao

史载（Historical Record）

Cao Cao, styled Mengde, was a man of Qiao in the state of Pei, a descendant of Cao Shen, chancellor of the Han. His adoptive grandfather Cao Teng rose under Emperor Huan of Han to be Palace Attendant and Grand Steward, and was enfeoffed as Marquis of Feiting. Cao Teng's adopted son Cao Song rose to be Grand Commandant, but his true parentage is unclear, with some saying he was a son of the Xiahou clan^[1].

In his youth Cao Cao was exceptionally alert and full of stratagems, but unrestrained and roving in his ways, neglecting proper pursuits, so that most people of the time thought little of him. Yet Qiao Xuan of the state of Liang and He Yong of Nanyang regarded him with special favor. Qiao Xuan once said to Cao Cao: "The realm is about to fall into chaos; none but a talent born to the age can save the world. The one who can bring peace to all under heaven is, I dare say, you!"^[2] Xu Shao also appraised him as "a capable minister in an age of order, a treacherous hero in an age of chaos," at which Cao Cao laughed heartily. At twenty, Cao Cao was recommended as Filial and Incorrupt and made a court gentleman, later appointed Northern Commandant of Luoyang, where he became known for strict enforcement of the law, even cudgeling to death the uncle of the Palace Attendant Jian Shuo, who had broken the prohibitions. The capital thus came to dread him, but he was also transferred to be Magistrate of Dunqiu^[2].

In the sixth year of Zhongping (189 CE), Emperor Ling died, and the General-in-Chief He Jin plotted with Yuan Shao to execute the eunuchs, but the Empress Dowager would not allow it. He Jin thereupon summoned Dong Zhuo into the capital, intending to coerce the Empress Dowager, of which Cao Cao disapproved, holding that "the office of the eunuchs has properly existed from ancient times to now; it is only that the ruler of the age ought not to lend them power and favor until things reach this pass. Having decided to punish their crime, one should execute the chief malefactor, and a single jailer would suffice—why this clamorous summoning of generals from outside?"^[3] Before Dong Zhuo arrived, He Jin had already been killed by the eunuchs. After Dong Zhuo entered the capital, he deposed the young emperor and set up Emperor Xian, seizing control of the court, and the capital fell into great chaos. Dong Zhuo recommended Cao Cao as Colonel of Agile Cavalry and wished to plot together with him, but Cao Cao, judging that Dong Zhuo would in the end come to ruin, changed his name and made his way east in secret^[3]. He gave away all his family wealth, raised troops at Jiwu, and called upon the righteous men of the realm to join in attacking Dong Zhuo^[3].

In the spring of the first year of Chuping (190 CE), Yuan Shu, Han Fu, Kong Zhou, Liu Dai, Wang Kuang, Yuan Shao, Zhang Miao, Qiao Mao, Yuan Yi, Bao Xin, and other lords raised troops simultaneously, honoring Yuan Shao as alliance leader, and Cao Cao was appointed General Who Rouses Valor^[4]. On hearing this, Dong Zhuo moved the Son of Heaven to Chang'an and burned the palaces of Luoyang. Fearing Dong Zhuo's strong forces, the lords mostly dared not advance. Cao Cao strongly urged advancing, holding that "this is the time when Heaven destroys him. One battle and the realm is settled—it must not be lost"^[5]. He thereupon led his troops west and fought Dong Zhuo's general Xu Rong at the Bian River near Xingyang; the engagement went against him, his soldiers suffering heavy casualties, and Cao Cao himself was struck by a stray arrow, escaping only because his cousin Cao Hong yielded him his horse^[5].

A million strong, the Yellow Turbans of Qing Province entered Yanzhou, killing Zheng Sui, Chancellor of Rencheng, and then turned into Dongping. Liu Dai, Inspector of Yanzhou, wished to strike them; Bao Xin dissuaded him, holding that they could not be met by force and that he should first hold firm and wait for them to tire. Liu Dai did not heed him and died in battle. Chen Gong thereupon urged Cao Cao to take up the post of Governor of Yanzhou^[6]. Cao Cao then led his army to strike the Yellow Turbans east of Shouzhang; Bao Xin fought hard and died, but Cao Cao finally broke the Yellow Turban army, accepting the surrender of more than three hundred thousand men and over a million men and women, and forming their elite into the "Qing Province troops"^[6].

In the spring of the first year of Xingping (194 CE), Cao Cao returned from Xu Province. Earlier, his father Cao Song, while fleeing the chaos of Dong Zhuo, had been killed by Tao Qian's subordinates, and Cao Cao was thus set on revenge. He campaigned against Tao Qian again, storming five cities, with much slaughter wherever he passed^[7]. At this time, however, Zhang Miao and Chen Gong rebelled and welcomed Lü Bu into Yanzhou, and many commanderies and counties responded. Cao Cao was forced to march his army back and stood at a stalemate with Lü Bu for more than a hundred days. Later, owing to a locust plague, the people went into great famine, Lü Bu's provisions ran out, and both sides drew off their troops^[8]. The next year, Cao Cao attacked and took Dingtao, defeated Lü Bu, and finally pacified Yanzhou. Lü Bu fled east to Liu Bei, and Cao Cao exterminated Zhang Miao's clan to the third degree^[9].

In the first year of Jian'an (196 CE), Cao Cao welcomed Emperor Xian of Han to Xu, and from then on "held the Son of Heaven to command the lords." The emperor appointed Cao Cao General-in-Chief and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Wuping, later appointing him Minister of Works and acting General of Chariots and Cavalry^[10]. He adopted the proposals of Zao Zhi, Han Hao, and others and began to implement the agricultural-garrison system, solving the problem of military provisions and laying the foundation for his later unification of the north^[11]. In the third year of Jian'an (198 CE), Lü Bu again betrayed Liu Bei, and Cao Cao personally campaigned against Lü Bu, besieging Xiapi. On the advice of Xun You and Guo Jia, Cao Cao breached the Si and Yi rivers to flood the city, finally capturing and killing Lü Bu and Chen Gong^[12].

In the thirteenth year of Jian'an (208 CE), the Han abolished the offices of the Three Excellencies and established a Chancellor and a Grandee Secretary, and Cao Cao was appointed Chancellor^[13]. In the summer of the twenty-first year of Jian'an (216 CE), Emperor Xian of Han advanced Cao Cao to be King of Wei^[14]. During his rule, Cao Cao gathered worthy talents far and wide, promoted agricultural garrisons, pacified the north, and laid the foundation for the establishment of the state of Wei. His son Cao Pi inherited his position and posthumously honored Cao Cao as Emperor Wu^[15].

演中（In the Novel）

The Cao Cao of Romance of the Three Kingdoms has his image elaborated upon the historical basis, made more dramatic and controversial. The novel opens by depicting Cao Cao's youth: he "loved roaming and hunting, delighted in song and dance; was full of stratagems and quick to adapt"^[16]. In the Romance, to rid himself of his uncle's tale-bearing to his father, Cao Cao feigned a stroke, so that his father no longer believed the uncle's words, and he was thus able to "indulge himself as he pleased"^[16]—echoing the historical record of being "unrestrained and roving, neglecting proper pursuits," though the specific episode is exaggerated. As for Xu Shao's appraisal, in the Romance Cao Cao actively asked for it; Xu Shao at first would not answer, and only under Cao Cao's pressing said, "you are a capable minister in an age of order, a treacherous hero in an age of chaos," at which Cao Cao "was greatly delighted"^[16]—highlighting Cao Cao's clear-eyed self-awareness and his acceptance of the name of "treacherous hero."

In his post as Northern Commandant of Luoyang, the Romance emphasizes Cao Cao's iron-handed enforcement of the law: he "set up more than ten five-colored staves at the four gates of the county, and any who broke the prohibitions, sparing not the rich and powerful, were all punished," even cudgeling the uncle of the Palace Attendant Jian Shuo^[16]—largely consistent with the historical record, but with greater stress on how his "awesome name shook the realm."

When He Jin summoned outside troops into the capital to attack the eunuchs, Cao Cao's remonstrance in the Romance is more direct and pointed. He not only noted that "the disaster of the eunuchs has existed in every age; it is only that the ruler of the age ought not to lend them power and favor until things reach this pass," but also foretold that "the one who throws the realm into chaos will surely be He Jin"^[17]—making Cao Cao's foresight and insight into the times all the more prominent. After He Jin was killed, Cao Cao, together with Yuan Shao, cut through the gates and entered, quelling the disorder within the palace, and "on one hand put out the fire in the palace, requested that Empress Dowager He provisionally take charge of great affairs, dispatched troops to pursue and attack Zhang Rang and the others, and sought out the young emperor"^[18], displaying his decisiveness and "loyalty" to the house of Han.

The episode of the attempt to assassinate Dong Zhuo is a highlight of the Romance's shaping of Cao Cao. He borrowed the Seven-Star Treasure Sword from Wang Yun, wishing to "at once cut off Dong Zhuo's head, hang it at the capital's gate, and thereby answer to the realm"^[19], displaying his daring and his resolve to rid the country of harm. In the chancellor's residence, he seized the moment when Lü Bu had left and Dong Zhuo was sleeping soundly to draw his blade for the strike, but because Dong Zhuo suddenly awoke he failed, and finally escaped under the pretext of presenting the sword^[20]. On his flight, he mistakenly killed the family of Lü Boshe, and uttered the classic line "I would rather wrong all the world than let the world wrong me"^[21]—a line that profoundly reveals Cao Cao's cold-blooded, ends-justify-any-means side and became a signature annotation to his image as a "treacherous hero." The historical record holds that Lü Boshe's family was robbed and killed by his son and guests, or that Cao Cao, suspecting they meant him harm, killed them, and there is no line of "I would rather wrong others than let others wrong me"^[3]; the Romance made a bold artistic elaboration here.

During the alliance against Dong Zhuo, Cao Cao, displeased at the lords' passive attitude, angrily rebuked them: "these brats are not worth plotting with"^[22], and alone led his troops in pursuit of Dong Zhuo—glorious though defeated—displaying his valor and enterprising spirit. In the battle of Xu Province, the Romance emphasizes that Cao Cao, on account of his father's death, slaughtered the people of Xu Province, ordering that "once a city or fortress is taken, all the people within be put to the sword, to avenge my father's death"^[23], further intensifying his cruel side and laying the groundwork for Liu Bei's appearance. Chen Gong remonstrated, urging Cao Cao not to slaughter the innocent, but Cao Cao angrily rebuked him: "Long ago you abandoned me and left; with what face do you now come to see me again?"^[24] and insisted on revenge, finally causing Chen Gong to leave and join Zhang Miao.

关键关系

* Cao Song (parent_of): Cao Cao's father, who rose to be Grand Commandant. In the histories, Cao Song was Cao Teng's adopted son and his true parentage is unclear^[1]. In the Romance, Cao Song is plainly stated to have been originally surnamed Xiahou, taking the surname Cao because Cao Teng adopted him^[16]. Cao Cao's attack on Xu Province to avenge his father was one of his important early military actions.
* Qiao Xuan (mentor_of): A famous gentleman of the state of Liang, renowned for judging men. In the histories, Qiao Xuan foretold that Cao Cao was "the one who can bring peace to the realm"^[2]. In the Romance, Qiao Xuan likewise gave a similar appraisal, holding that "the realm is about to fall into chaos; none but a talent born to the age can save it. The one who can bring peace, is it not you?"^[16], affirming Cao Cao's ability.
* He Yong (friend_of): A famous gentleman of Nanyang. In the histories, He Yong, together with Qiao Xuan, esteemed Cao Cao^[2]. In the Romance, He Yong likewise foretold that "the house of Han is about to fall; the one who brings peace to the realm must be this man"^[16], further raising Cao Cao's repute.
* Wang Fen (rival_of): The provided materials make no direct mention of a rivalry between Wang Fen and Cao Cao. This information may derive from other historical sources or versions of the Romance, or be a general description.
* Xu Shao (acquaintance_of): A famous gentleman of Runan, renowned for judging men. In the histories, Cao Cao once asked Xu Shao, "What sort of man am I?" and Xu Shao answered, "you are a capable minister in an age of order, a treacherous hero in an age of chaos"^[2]. In the Romance, this episode is preserved, emphasizing that Cao Cao "was greatly delighted" upon hearing it^[16], reflecting his acceptance of his own self-assessment.
* Dong Zhuo (rival_of): A powerful minister at the end of the Eastern Han. In the histories, Cao Cao, displeased at Dong Zhuo's misrule, refused his appointment and raised troops to attack him^[3]. In the Romance, Cao Cao further enacted the perilous scene of attempting to assassinate Dong Zhuo; though he did not succeed, it displayed his extraordinary daring and his "loyalty" to the house of Han^[19].
* Yuan Shao (rival_of): Alliance leader against Dong Zhuo. In the histories, Yuan Shao once raised troops together with Cao Cao, but later, owing to differing ideals, friction arose, and Cao Cao refused Yuan Shao's proposal to set up Liu Yu as emperor^[25]. In the Romance, Cao Cao showed displeasure at Yuan Shao's hesitation in the campaign against Dong Zhuo, angrily rebuking him: "these brats are not worth plotting with"^[22], laying the groundwork for the later Battle of Guandu.
* Chen Gong (ally_turned_rival): An officer of Yanzhou. In the histories, Chen Gong once urged Cao Cao to take up the post of Governor of Yanzhou^[6], then later betrayed Cao Cao and welcomed Lü Bu into Yanzhou^[8]. In the Romance, after Cao Cao's failed assassination of Dong Zhuo, Chen Gong traveled with Cao Cao, but later abandoned him because Cao Cao mistakenly killed the family of Lü Boshe and uttered "I would rather wrong all the world than let the world wrong me"^[21]. In the battle of Xu Province, Chen Gong again remonstrated with Cao Cao not to slaughter the innocent, but Cao Cao would not listen, and Chen Gong finally went over to Zhang Miao and, together with Lü Bu, opposed Cao Cao^[24].
* Lü Bu (rival_of): The foremost warrior of the Three Kingdoms. In the histories, Lü Bu once contended with Cao Cao for Yanzhou, was later defeated by Cao Cao, and captured and killed^[8]. In the Romance, Lü Bu's image is more vivid: he betrayed Ding Yuan and Dong Zhuo, later fought Cao Cao many times, and was finally captured and killed by Cao Cao at Xiapi^[12].
* Liu Bei (rival_of): The Brilliant Founding Emperor of Shu Han. In the histories, Liu Bei once attached himself to Cao Cao, then later opposed him. Cao Cao once defeated Liu Bei and accepted the surrender of his subordinate generals^[12]. In the Romance, the relationship between Liu Bei and Cao Cao is more complex, with both brief cooperation and long-standing opposition, and Cao Cao's appraisal of Liu Bei—"the heroes of the realm are only you, sir, and Cao"—became a classic.

标志性场景

* Strict enforcement of the law as Northern Commandant of Luoyang: On first taking up the post of Northern Commandant of Luoyang, Cao Cao "made five-colored staves, more than ten on each side of the county gate, and any who broke the prohibitions, sparing not the rich and powerful, were all cudgeled to death," even cudgeling to death the uncle of the Palace Attendant Jian Shuo, so that "the capital reined itself in and none dared offend"^[2]. This event is depicted in detail in the Romance, becoming an early manifestation of Cao Cao's iron-handed governance^[16].
* Assassination attempt on Dong Zhuo (novel only): Cao Cao borrowed the Seven-Star Treasure Sword from Wang Yun and slipped into the chancellor's residence intending to assassinate Dong Zhuo. Though he did not succeed, his daring was extraordinary, and he left behind the timeless line "I would rather wrong all the world than let the world wrong me"^[21]. This episode is unrecorded in the Records of the Three Kingdoms and is a classic shaping of Cao Cao's image by Romance of the Three Kingdoms^[19].
* Raising troops against Dong Zhuo: After Dong Zhuo's misrule, Cao Cao "gave away his family wealth, gathered a righteous host, and would thereby execute Zhuo," raising troops at Jiwu^[3]. In the Romance, he first issued a forged edict, sent word galloping along every route, then mustered righteous troops and raised a white recruiting banner bearing the words "loyalty and righteousness"^[26], displaying his appeal as a regional lord.
* Battle of the Bian River at Xingyang: Among the alliance against Dong Zhuo, only Cao Cao strongly urged advancing, leading his troops west and fighting Dong Zhuo's general Xu Rong at the Bian River near Xingyang; though defeated, his courage and enterprising spirit were displayed^[5].
* Incorporating the Qing Province troops: Cao Cao broke the Yellow Turban army in Yanzhou, accepting the surrender of more than three hundred thousand men and over a million men and women, and forming their elite into the "Qing Province troops"^[6]. This army became an important early military force for Cao Cao, laying the foundation for his later unification of the north.
* Revenge campaign against Xu Province: Cao Cao's father Cao Song was killed by Tao Qian's subordinates, and Cao Cao was thus set on revenge, campaigning twice against Xu Province with much slaughter wherever he passed^[7]. In the Romance, this episode is rendered as a manifestation of Cao Cao's cruel side, with his order that "once a city or fortress is taken, all the people within be put to the sword, to avenge my hatred"^[23].
* Contending with Lü Bu for Yanzhou: Zhang Miao and Chen Gong rebelled and welcomed Lü Bu into Yanzhou; Cao Cao was forced to march his army back and stand at a stalemate with Lü Bu, finally defeating Lü Bu and pacifying Yanzhou^[8]. This series of battles displayed Cao Cao's outstanding military talent.
* Welcoming Emperor Xian of Han to Xu: Cao Cao welcomed Emperor Xian of Han to Xu, and from then on "held the Son of Heaven to command the lords," providing political legitimacy for his later growth in strength^[10].
* Implementing the agricultural-garrison system: Cao Cao adopted the proposals of Zao Zhi, Han Hao, and others and began to implement the agricultural-garrison system, solving the problem of military provisions and providing a solid logistical basis for campaigns on every front^[11].
* Capturing and killing Lü Bu at Xiapi: Cao Cao personally campaigned against Lü Bu, besieged Xiapi, and finally breached the Si and Yi rivers to flood the city, capturing and killing Lü Bu and Chen Gong^[12]. This battle entirely removed the powerful military threat of Lü Bu.
* Enfeoffed as King of Wei: In the twenty-first year of Jian'an (216 CE), Emperor Xian of Han advanced Cao Cao to be King of Wei^[14], marking a great rise in Cao Cao's political standing and laying the foundation for Cao Wei's replacement of the Han.
* Recruiting worthy men and gentlemen: Cao Cao recruited worthy men and gentlemen in Yanzhou, and many civil officials and military officers—Xun Yu, Xun You, Cheng Yu, Guo Jia, Liu Ye, Man Chong, Lu Qian, Mao Jie, Yu Jin, Dian Wei, and others—came to join him^[27], laying the foundation in talent for the strength of Cao Cao's faction. Dian Wei's valor and loyalty to Cao Cao are emphatically depicted in the Romance^[28].