Zhuge Liang

Historical Record

Zhuge Liang, styled Kongming, was a native of Yangdu in Langya, a descendant of Zhuge Feng, who had been Colonel-Director of Retainers under the Han. His father Zhuge Gui once served as Assistant Administrator of Mount Tai Commandery and died early. Zhuge Liang lost his father in childhood and followed his uncle Zhuge Xuan to Yuzhang, after which Xuan attached himself to Liu Biao, Governor of Jing Province. After Xuan died, Zhuge Liang farmed at Longzhong, often comparing himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi; most of his contemporaries did not take this seriously, and only friends such as Cui Zhouping of Boling and Xu Shu of Yingchuan believed him ^c:12009.

In the twelfth year of Jian'an (207 CE), the Former Lord Liu Bei was garrisoned at Xinye, and Xu Shu recommended Zhuge Liang to him, calling him the "Crouching Dragon." Liu Bei made the Three Visits to the thatched cottage before he could meet Zhuge Liang. Zhuge Liang analyzed for Liu Bei the situation of the realm and put forward the "Longzhong Plan" strategic conception of "straddling Jing and Yi, holding fast their natural barriers, making peace with the various Rong to the west, pacifying the Yi and Yue to the south, allying with Sun Quan abroad, and putting governance in order at home," so as to pursue hegemony ^c:12011. Liu Bei was greatly delighted to hear this, and his friendship with Liang grew daily closer; he explained his high regard for Liang by saying, "My having Kongming is like a fish having water." ^c:12011

When Cao Cao marched south against Liu Biao, Liu Biao died of illness, and after his son Liu Cong succeeded him, Liu Cong surrendered to Cao. Liu Bei led his followers in retreat to the south, and Cao Cao pursued urgently, routing Liu Bei's army at Changban in Dangyang. Liu Bei, together with Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun, and a few dozen horsemen, managed to escape ^c:12003. At this critical juncture, Liu Bei sent Zhuge Liang as an envoy to Eastern Wu to ally with Sun Quan. Zhuge Liang successfully persuaded Sun Quan, bringing about the joint Sun-Liu army to resist Cao Cao together ^c:12013. At the Battle of Red Cliffs, the joint Sun-Liu army routed Cao's army, and Cao Cao led his troops back north. Liu Bei seized the opportunity to take the various commanderies south of the Yangtze, and made Zhuge Liang Military Adviser and General of the Household, supervising the taxes of the three commanderies of Lingling, Guiyang, and Changsha to provision the army ^c:12013.

In the sixteenth year of Jian'an (211 CE), Liu Bei entered Shu, while Zhuge Liang and Guan Yu held Jing Province. Later Liang led Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun, and others up the river, pacifying commanderies and counties one by one, and joined forces with Liu Bei to besiege Chengdu. After Yi Province was pacified, Liang was appointed Military Adviser General and managed the affairs of the office of the General of the Left, often guarding Chengdu and keeping it well supplied with food and troops ^c:12014. In the first year of Zhangwu (221 CE), Liu Bei proclaimed himself Emperor and founded Shu Han, making Zhuge Liang Chancellor, managing the affairs of the Imperial Secretariat, with the authority of the staff of office ^c:12004. In the third year of Zhangwu (223 CE), Liu Bei lay gravely ill at Yongan and summoned Zhuge Liang to entrust him with the affairs that would follow, saying, "Your talent is ten times that of Cao Pi; you will surely bring peace to the state and finally settle the great task. If the heir can be assisted, assist him; if he proves without talent, you may take it yourself." Liang wept and declared that he would exhaust the strength of his limbs and render the integrity of his loyalty ^c:12018.

After Liu Bei died, Zhuge Liang assisted the Later Lord Liu Shan. In the third year of Jianxing (225 CE), Liang led an army on a southern campaign, pacifying four commanderies, so that military supplies were ample and the state's strength was abundant ^c:12019. Thereafter, Zhuge Liang ordered the troops and trained for war, planning a northern expedition. In the sixth year of Jianxing (228 CE), Liang led an army north to garrison Hanzhong and advanced from Mount Qi; the three commanderies of Nan'an, Tianshui, and Anding rebelled against Wei in response, shaking the region within the passes. However, because Ma Su disobeyed his commands and Jieting was lost, Liang was forced to withdraw and demoted himself three ranks, acting as Chancellor with the title of General of the Right ^c:12020. Thereafter, Liang launched several more northern expeditions, once besieging Chencang and defeating Wang Shuang, and pacifying the two commanderies of Wudu and Yinping ^c:12021. In the ninth year of Jianxing (231 CE), Liang again advanced from Mount Qi, using wooden oxen to transport grain, and in battle with the Wei general Zhang He, he shot Zhang He dead ^c:12022. In the twelfth year of Jianxing (234 CE), Liang led a great army out through the Xie Valley, using gliding horses to transport grain, occupied the Wuzhang Plains at Wugong, and stood in confrontation with Sima Yi for more than a hundred days. In the eighth month of that year, Zhuge Liang died of illness in camp, aged fifty-four ^c:12024. In life Liang was incorrupt, his household holding no surplus wealth, just as he himself said: "At Chengdu there are eight hundred mulberry trees and fifteen qing of poor fields; my kinsmen's food and clothing have their own surplus. As for me serving in posts abroad, I make no separate provision; my food and clothing on my person all depend on the government, and I do not pursue separate livelihood to add an inch. On the day I die, I will not let there be surplus silk within nor surplus wealth without, so as to fail Your Majesty." ^c:12881 In the sixth year of Jingyao (263 CE), the Later Lord decreed that a temple be erected to Liang at Mianyang ^c:12026.

In the Novel

In the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Zhuge Liang's image is invested with even more legendary color and divine foresight. The novel describes in detail Xu Shu recommending Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei, and mentions that Master Water Mirror, Sima Hui, once said, "If one can obtain either the Crouching Dragon or the Young Phoenix, the realm may be made secure," likening Zhuge Liang to the "Crouching Dragon" ^c:12057. The details of Liu Bei's Three Visits are rendered in full, and when Kongming first appears, he is "eight chi tall, his face like fine jade, wearing a silk band on his head and a crane-feather cloak on his body, with the floating air of an immortal." ^c:12280 The "Longzhong Plan" strategy he put forward in the thatched cottage is portrayed as the peerless wisdom of one who knew the realm would be divided in three before ever leaving his cottage ^c:12060.

In the novel, Zhuge Liang is not only a strategist but also a military commander. As soon as he emerged from his cottage, he burned Xiahou Dun at Bowang Slope, displaying his outstanding military talent. In this battle, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei doubted Kongming's youth and ability, and Zhang Fei even mocked him, saying, "We all go off to fight, while you sit at home—how comfortable!" ^c:12311 But Kongming, with the wisdom of "devising strategies within the tent and deciding victory a thousand li away," successfully defeated Cao's army ^c:12313. Thereafter he again burned Cao's army at Xinye, further consolidating his standing within Liu Bei's faction ^c:12069.

At the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhuge Liang shines all the more, with episodes such as borrowing arrows with straw boats and borrowing the east wind (novel-only) ^c:12072 greatly reinforcing his image of divine foresight. In the novel he foresaw that Cao Cao would pursue Liu Bei and arranged in advance for Liu Qi to receive them at Hanjin, displaying precise judgment of the situation ^c:12072. When Liu Biao was gravely ill, Liu Bei could not bear to seize Jing Province; though Kongming urged him to, Liu Bei still held to benevolence and righteousness, and through this episode the novel highlights Liu Bei's benevolence while also setting off Kongming's deep foresight ^c:12067.

The novel also depicts Zhuge Liang's clever response, "reaching neither heaven above nor earth below," when Liu Qi sought his counsel, ultimately pointing out for Liu Qi a strategy to avoid disaster ^c:12062; these details greatly enrich the image of Zhuge Liang's resourcefulness. Compared with the historical record, the Zhuge Liang of the novel is more legendary in color, his stratagems exaggerated and even tinged with myth, making him the very embodiment of wisdom.

Key Relationships

* Liu Bei's faction (serves): Zhuge Liang was the core strategist and de facto leader of Liu Bei's faction. He devised the "Longzhong Plan" strategy for Liu Bei, assisted Liu Bei from dependence on others to the founding of Shu Han, and ultimately became Chancellor of Shu Han, presiding over both internal and external affairs ^c:12014. Liu Bei trusted him completely, saying, "My having Kongming is like a fish having water." ^c:12011
* Liu Bei (witnesses): Zhuge Liang witnessed the whole course of Liu Bei's journey from wandering displacement to founding an imperial enterprise. Before his death, Liu Bei entrusted him with the Later Lord Liu Shan, charging him with the heavy task of assisting the young sovereign ^c:12018.
* Sun Quan (advises_in): Before the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhuge Liang, as Liu Bei's envoy, successfully persuaded Sun Quan to resist Cao together, bringing about the Sun-Liu alliance and turning the tide of the realm ^c:12013.
* Shu Han (serves): Zhuge Liang was a founding minister and de facto ruler of Shu Han. He not only devised the state's strategy but also governed internal affairs, developed the economy, and led several northern expeditions, devoting himself utterly to the survival and development of Shu Han ^c:12019.
* Guan Yu and Zhang Fei: In the early period, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were unconvinced by the young and as-yet-unaccomplished Zhuge Liang, but Liu Bei dispelled their dissatisfaction with the "bond of fish and water" ^c:12011. In the Battle of Bowang Slope, Zhuge Liang's clever military deployment won the wholehearted admiration of both Guan and Zhang ^c:12063.
* Xu Shu: Xu Shu was Zhuge Liang's close friend and the key figure who recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei. He once told Liu Bei, "Zhuge Kongming is the Crouching Dragon; would the general be willing to see him?" ^c:12011
* Fa Zheng: Although Zhuge Liang and Fa Zheng differed in their tastes, they esteemed each other for public righteousness, and Liang always marveled at Fa Zheng's wit and resourcefulness. After Fa Zheng died, Liang once lamented, "Had Fa Xiaozhi been alive, he could have restrained the sovereign and kept him from going east; and even had he gone east, he surely would not have come to such peril." ^c:12030
* Sima Yi: During Zhuge Liang's northern expeditions, he confronted Sima Yi many times. During the standoff at the Wuzhang Plains, Sima Yi appraised Zhuge Liang as "a man of rare talent in the realm!" ^c:12024
* Liu Qi: Zhuge Liang once cleverly devised a plan for Liu Qi, enabling him to avoid disaster and go to Jiangxia ^c:12062 (novel-only).

Iconic Scenes

* The Three Visits to the Thatched Cottage: Liu Bei went three times to Longzhong to call on Zhuge Liang, finally winning his agreement to leave his retreat and assist him. This event fully displays Liu Bei's eager thirst for the worthy and Zhuge Liang's extraordinary, transcendent wisdom ^c:12011.
* The Longzhong Plan: In his thatched cottage, Zhuge Liang analyzed for Liu Bei the great situation of the realm and put forward the strategic conception of "straddling Jing and Yi, holding fast their natural barriers," laying the cornerstone of the Shu Han regime ^c:12011.
* Debate with the scholars of Jiangdong: In Eastern Wu, facing the doubts of the assembled ministers, Zhuge Liang, with his eloquence, refuted them all and successfully brought about the Sun-Liu alliance ^c:12013 (novel-only).
* Borrowing arrows with straw boats: Before the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhuge Liang took advantage of a heavy fog to cleverly borrow Cao Cao's arrows, solving Eastern Wu's shortage of arrows ^c:12072 (novel-only).
* Borrowing the east wind: At the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhuge Liang set up an altar and performed rites to borrow a southeast wind, helping Zhou Yu's fire attack on Cao's army and securing the victory at Red Cliffs ^c:12072 (novel-only).
* Fire attack at Bowang Slope: As soon as Zhuge Liang emerged from his cottage, he directed Liu Bei's army in a fire attack on Cao Cao's general Xiahou Dun, winning a great victory and displaying his outstanding military talent ^c:12064 (novel-only).
* Burning of Xinye: At Xinye, Zhuge Liang again laid a fire-attack scheme, greatly defeating Cao's army and forcing Cao Cao to withdraw ^c:12069 (novel-only).
* Provoking Zhou Yu by wit: Through his words Zhuge Liang goaded Zhou Yu into resolving firmly to resist Cao, ultimately bringing about the Battle of Red Cliffs ^c:12013 (novel-only).
* Seven captures of Meng Huo: During his southern campaign, Zhuge Liang captured and released Meng Huo seven times, ultimately winning his wholehearted submission and stabilizing the southern frontier ^c:12019 (novel-only).
* Executing Ma Su in tears: During the northern expedition, because Ma Su disobeyed Zhuge Liang's commands and caused the loss of Jieting, Zhuge Liang, though grieving for his talent, still executed him according to the law to uphold military discipline ^c:12020.
* The Memorial on Setting Out to War: On the eve of his northern expedition, Zhuge Liang submitted the Memorial on Setting Out to War to the Later Lord Liu Shan, expressing his resolve of utter loyalty and devotion to the last ^c:12019.
* Death at the Wuzhang Plains: In the course of his northern expedition, Zhuge Liang fell ill from overwork and died in camp at the Wuzhang Plains, unable to realize his grand aspiration of restoring the House of Han ^c:12024.
* A dead Zhuge puts living Zhongda to flight: After Zhuge Liang died, Sima Yi pursued the Shu army but withdrew out of suspicion and fear, giving rise to the popular saying "a dead Zhuge puts living Zhongda to flight" ^c:12024 (novel-only).