Zhang Lu

Historical Record

Zhang Lu, courtesy name Gongqi, was a man of Feng in the State of Pei, whose family had for generations followed Daoism. His grandfather Zhang Ling sojourned in the land of Shu, founded a Daoist sect in the Huming Mountains, and composed Daoist texts to deceive the people; anyone who received the Way from him had to contribute five pecks of rice, and so the people called them "rice thieves." After Zhang Ling's death, his son Zhang Heng inherited his Way, and after Zhang Heng died, Zhang Lu continued to practice his teachings ^c:1935.

Liu Yan, Governor of Yi Province, appointed Zhang Lu as Major Promoting Righteousness (duyi sima) and, together with the Major of a Separate Command Zhang Xiu, sent him to lead troops to attack Su Gu, Grand Administrator of Hanzhong. However, Zhang Lu took the opportunity to surprise and kill Zhang Xiu and seized his troops. After Liu Yan died, his son Liu Zhang succeeded him. Because Zhang Lu would not obey Liu Zhang, Liu Zhang killed all of Zhang Lu's mother and family, and the two sides thus formed a deep enmity ^c:1938.

Holding Hanzhong, Zhang Lu instructed the people by way of the "demon Way" and styled himself "Lord-Teacher" (shijun). Beginners were called "demon soldiers" (guizu), and those advanced in the Way were called "libationers" (jijiu); among them, those leading larger followings were "chief libationers" (zhitou da jijiu). He taught the people to take honesty as their foundation and forbade deceit, and decreed that the sick must confess their faults. His teaching had similarities to that of the Yellow Turban Army. Zhang Lu set up "charity lodges" (yishe) in various places, like the relay stations of the time, stocked with charity rice and charity meat for travelers to take as needed; those who took too much would fall ill. For lawbreakers, Zhang Lu practiced the system of "three pardons," meaning punishment was applied only after three admonitions. He did not establish senior officials but had libationers govern the localities, so that both the local people and the non-Han peoples felt at ease. Zhang Lu dominated the Ba and Han regions for nearly thirty years ^c:1935.

In the twentieth year of Jian'an (215 CE), Cao Cao led his army to attack Hanzhong. After Yangping Pass fell, Zhang Lu had wished to surrender, but his subordinate Yan Pu advised him first to withdraw into Bazhong and resist alongside such forces as Du Huo and Pu Hu, then to choose the right moment to submit, so as to win greater merit. Zhang Lu adopted this advice and fled to the South Mountains, entering Bazhong. His attendants wished to burn the storehouses of treasures and goods, but Zhang Lu stopped them, saying: "I originally wished to submit to the state; it is only that my intention was not fulfilled. Now I flee to avoid Cao Cao's keen edge, not out of malice. The treasures and storehouses belong to the state and must not be destroyed." He therefore sealed up the storehouses before departing. After Cao Cao entered Nanzheng, he greatly praised this act, judging that Zhang Lu had originally harbored good intentions, and sent men to console him. Zhang Lu led his whole family out to surrender. Cao Cao went forth to receive Zhang Lu and appointed him General Who Guards the South, treating him with the courtesy due a guest, enfeoffing him as Marquis of Langzhong with a fief of ten thousand households. Zhang Lu's five sons and men such as Yan Pu were all enfeoffed as full marquises. Cao Cao also took Zhang Lu's daughter as a wife for his own son Cao Pengzu ^c:5428.

In the Novel

Romance of the Three Kingdoms' depiction of Zhang Lu largely follows the historical record, especially regarding his religious background and mode of governance. The novel describes in detail Zhang Lu's image as "Lord-Teacher" and the specific doctrines and practices of the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice, such as the prayer method of the "writs to the Three Officials" (sanguan shoushu), the establishment of charity lodges, and the rule of "pardoning three times" for lawbreakers ^c:5432. These details make Zhang Lu's image fuller.

In his relationship with Liu Zhang, the novel is also faithful to the historical record, noting that because Zhang Lu would not submit, Liu Zhang killed Zhang Lu's mother and younger brother, causing the two sides to become enemies ^c:1938. However, in the clash between Zhang Lu and Cao Cao, the novel adds some dramatic episodes with no clear basis in history. For example, when Cao Cao attacked Hanzhong, the novel introduces an episode in which Zhang Lu's younger brother Zhang Wei advises building a stockade at Yangping Pass to meet the enemy ^c:5434. Even more dramatically, the novel fabricates an episode in which Yang Song, bribed by Cao Cao, frames Pang De, causing Zhang Lu to misunderstand Pang De and even wish to behead him ^c:10868. This passage aims to highlight Cao Cao's stratagems and Yang Song's treachery, while also foreshadowing Pang De's later surrender. In the novel, when Zhang Lu faced the pressure of Cao Cao's great army, Yang Song advised opening the gates and surrendering, while Zhang Wei advocated burning the storehouses and withdrawing. Zhang Lu ultimately chose to seal up the storehouses, reflecting his good intention of "originally wishing to submit to the state," a point consistent with the historical record ^c:10869.

The novel also depicts how, before Liu Bei entered Shu, Liu Zhang, fearing that Cao Cao would attack Zhang Lu and thereby threaten Yi Province, took Zhang Song's advice and brought Liu Bei into Shu to oppose Zhang Lu ^c:5429. This accords with the historical background in which Liu Zhang, worried that Cao Cao would seize Yi Province, brought Liu Bei into Shu; but the novel further emphasizes Zhang Lu as an important bargaining chip between Liu Zhang and Liu Bei.

Key Relationships

* Liu Yan: Zhang Lu was once appointed Major Promoting Righteousness by Liu Yan ^c:1935, who was his early superior.
* Way of the Five Pecks of Rice: Zhang Lu was the actual leader of the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice, inheriting the teachings of his grandfather Zhang Ling and his father Zhang Heng and developing them in Hanzhong, using them to govern the locality and styling himself "Lord-Teacher" ^c:1935.
* Liu Zhang: Zhang Lu and Liu Zhang were mortal enemies. Because Zhang Lu would not submit, Liu Zhang killed Zhang Lu's mother and younger brother, and Zhang Lu held Hanzhong in opposition to Liu Zhang ^c:1938. Liu Zhang sent troops to attack Zhang Lu several times, but all were defeated ^c:1938.
* Cao Cao: Zhang Lu ultimately chose to surrender after Cao Cao attacked Hanzhong. Cao Cao praised his act of sealing up the storehouses and gave him generous treatment, enfeoffing him as General Who Guards the South and Marquis of Langzhong with a fief of ten thousand households, and marrying his daughter to his own son ^c:5428.
* Yang Song: In the novel, Yang Song was an adviser under Zhang Lu, but his loyalty was in doubt. He once took bribes from Liu Bei, trying to bring about an alliance between Zhang Lu and Liu Bei (novel only) ^c:10867. Later he took bribes from Cao Cao and framed Pang De, shaking the morale of Zhang Lu's army and hastening the fall of Hanzhong (novel only) ^c:10868.
* Yan Pu: An adviser of Zhang Lu who offered advice to him several times. When Zhang Lu wished to surrender to Cao Cao, Yan Pu advised him first to withdraw into Bazhong and then choose the right moment to submit in order to win better terms ^c:5428. Cao Cao greatly praised his advising Zhang Lu against proclaiming himself king and enfeoffed him as a full marquis ^c:5428.

Iconic Scenes

* Holding Hanzhong, Governing the People by the Way: Zhang Lu inherited his grandfather Zhang Ling's Way of the Five Pecks of Rice and established a unique theocratic regime in the Hanzhong region. He styled himself "Lord-Teacher," instructed the people by the "demon Way," set up charity lodges, practiced the system of "three pardons," and dominated the Ba and Han regions for nearly thirty years ^c:1935. This was the most representative period of his political career, displaying his distinctive governing philosophy and influence.
* Becoming Enemies with Liu Zhang: Because Zhang Lu would not submit, Liu Zhang killed Zhang Lu's mother and younger brother, creating an irreconcilable enmity between Zhang Lu and Liu Zhang. This incident directly led to Zhang Lu's long occupation of Hanzhong and the standoff with Yi Province ^c:1938.
* Sealing the Storehouses, Surrendering to Cao Cao: When Cao Cao's great army bore down and Hanzhong fell, Zhang Lu, during his retreat, did not burn the storehouses but chose to seal them up, declaring, "The treasures and storehouses belong to the state." This act won Cao Cao's praise and laid the basis for his later generous treatment ^c:5428. This scene embodies a rare "good intention" of Zhang Lu in a chaotic age and his identification with the state.
* Yang Song Selling His Lord for Glory: In the novel, Yang Song, for personal gain, first took bribes from Liu Bei and then from Cao Cao, framing loyal and good men, ultimately bringing about Zhang Lu's defeat. After pacifying Hanzhong, Cao Cao had Yang Song beheaded as a public warning to those who would sell their lords for glory (novel only) ^c:5435. Although this episode is a novelistic fabrication, it greatly heightens the dramatic conflict of the story and shapes Yang Song as a villainous character.
* Liu Zhang Bringing Liu Bei into Shu to Resist Zhang Lu: Fearing that Cao Cao, after attacking Zhang Lu, would take the opportunity to seize Yi Province, Liu Zhang took Zhang Song's advice and brought Liu Bei into Shu, hoping to use Liu Bei's strength to resist Zhang Lu and protect Yi Province. This decision ultimately led to Liu Bei taking control of Yi Province, changing the configuration of the Three Kingdoms ^c:5429.