Zhang Ji

Historical Record

Zhang Ji, courtesy name Derong, was a man of Gaoling in Fengyi. He came of humble origins, but he was dignified in bearing, and from boyhood he excelled at drafting official documents. He often kept fine writing implements and memorial paper ready, watching for chances to aid high officials in need, and so came to be appreciated ^c:5289. Though later recommended as a man of filial piety and integrity, he did not take up the post. When Cao Cao was Minister of Works, he summoned Zhang Ji, but before Zhang Ji could take up the appointment he was again recommended as a flourishing talent and went out as Magistrate of Xinfeng. His governing ability in Xinfeng was reckoned first among the Three Adjuncts region.

During the Jian'an era, Yuan Shang withstood Cao Cao at Liyang and sent the Administrator of Hedong he had appointed, Guo Yuan, the Inspector of Bing Province Gao Gan, and the Xiongnu Chanyu to seize Pingyang, while also sending envoys to make contact with the generals of Guanzhong. The Colonel-Director of Retainers Zhong Yao sent Zhang Ji to persuade Ma Teng and the others. Zhang Ji laid out the advantages and dangers to Ma Teng and the rest, and they heeded his advice ^c:5289. Ma Teng then sent his son Ma Chao leading over ten thousand elite troops to join Zhong Yao and together defeat Gao Gan and Guo Yuan, beheading Guo Yuan; Gao Gan and the Chanyu thereupon surrendered. After this, Gao Gan again raised arms in revolt in Bing Province, and Zhang Sheng of Henei gathered over ten thousand men to cause havoc between Mount Xiao and Mianchi, while Wei Gu of Hedong and Zhang Yan of Hongnong each raised troops in response. Cao Cao appointed Zhang Ji as a court gentleman for consultation to take part in Zhong Yao's military operations, and had him summon Ma Teng and the other generals of Guanzhong to send out troops together and defeat Zhang Sheng and the rest, beheading Zhang Yan and Wei Gu, while Gao Gan fled to Jing Province. For his merit, Zhang Ji was enfeoffed as Marquis of Wushi Village ^c:5289.

When Cao Cao was preparing to campaign against Jing Province, Ma Teng and the others held Guanzhong as a separatist power. Cao Cao again sent Zhang Ji to persuade Ma Teng and the rest to give up their personal troops and return to the court. Though Ma Teng had already agreed, he then wavered. Fearing he would have a change of heart, Zhang Ji ordered the counties to hasten their stockpiling of supplies and had the officials of two-thousand-bushel rank go out to the suburbs to welcome him. With no recourse, Ma Teng had to journey east. Cao Cao memorialized to make Ma Teng Commandant of the Guards and his son Ma Chao a general commanding his troops. Later, when Ma Chao revolted, Zhang Ji followed Cao Cao in defeating Ma Chao at Huayin and pacified the region west of the passes. Zhang Ji was appointed Intendant of Jingzhao; he gathered in displaced people and restored counties and towns, winning the deep affection of the people ^c:1661.

After the state of Wei was established, Zhang Ji served as a Master of Writing, and later went out as Inspector of Yong Province. Cao Cao said to Zhang Ji, "To return to office in your home province may be called going abroad in brocade by day." When Zhang Ji followed Cao Cao in the campaign against Zhang Lu, he was ordered to enter by Sanguan, to campaign against the rebellious Di people, and to gather their wheat to supply the army's provisions. After Zhang Lu surrendered, Zhang Ji persuaded Cao Cao to relocate several tens of thousands of households from Hanzhong to Chang'an and the Three Adjuncts region to bolster the population ^c:1661. After this, Zhang Ji and Cao Hong defeated Wu Lan at Xiabian, and together with Xiahou Yuan campaigned against Song Jian; Zhang Ji also single-handedly took Lintao and Didao, pacifying these areas ^c:1661.

At that time, Cao Cao was relocating people to bolster the population north of the Yellow River, and the people of Longxi, Tianshui, and Nan'an were thereby thrown into fearful unrest. Zhang Ji granted leave to those of the three commanderies serving as generals and officials, letting them build houses and construct water-mills, and the people's hearts were thus set at ease ^c:10422. When Cao Cao intended to withdraw the garrison from Hanzhong, fearing that Liu Bei would attack northward to seize the Di territory of Wudu and thereby threaten Guanzhong, he sought Zhang Ji's counsel. Zhang Ji advised, "You can persuade them to migrate north to avoid the brigands; bestow generous rewards on those who arrive first, so that the first to come know the benefit, and those who follow will surely emulate them." Cao Cao adopted his strategy, going to Hanzhong in person to withdraw the army, and ordering Zhang Ji to go to Wudu, where he relocated over fifty thousand households of Di people and settled them in the Fufeng and Tianshui area ^c:10422.

Later, Yan Jun of Wuwei, He Luan of Zhangye, Huang Hua of Jiuquan, and Qu Yan of Xiping each raised their commanderies in revolt, styling themselves generals and attacking one another. Yan Jun sent an envoy to deliver his mother and son to Cao Cao as hostages and requested aid. Cao Cao consulted Zhang Ji, who said, "Yan Jun and the others outwardly borrow the prestige of the state while inwardly they are arrogant and rebellious; once their schemes succeed and their strength grows, they will rebel. Now, at the very time of pacifying Shu, it is better to let them fight one another for a while—like Bian Zhuangzi stabbing the tigers, we can sit and reap the gain." Cao Cao said, "Good." After more than a year, He Luan did indeed kill Yan Jun, and Wang Mi of Wuwei in turn killed He Luan ^c:1663.

After Emperor Wen ascended the throne, he first established Liang Province and appointed the Administrator of Anding, Zou Qi, as its Inspector. Zhang Jin of Zhangye detained the commandery governor and raised troops to resist Zou Qi, while Huang Hua and Qu Yan each expelled their former administrators and raised troops in response. Zhang Ji advanced his troops to lend support to the Colonel Who Protects the Qiang, Su Ze, enabling Su Ze to achieve merit. For this Zhang Ji was advanced in rank to Marquis of a Chief Village. The Lushui Hu of Liang Province, Yijian Jiqie, Zhi Yuanduo, and others revolted, and the Hexi region fell into great turmoil. Emperor Wen was troubled by this and said, "Apart from Zhang Ji, no one can pacify Liang Province." He thereupon recalled Zou Qi and had Zhang Ji replace him. The edict said, "In olden days Jia Fu requested to attack the Yan brigands; Emperor Guangwu laughed and said, 'With the Bearer of the Golden Mace attacking Yan, what have I to fear?' Your stratagems surpass others'; now is the very time for you to display your talents. You may act as expedient, without first seeking instruction." He also sent the Army Protector Xiahou Ru, the general Fei Yao, and others as a reserve. When Zhang Ji reached Jincheng and intended to cross the river, the generals all held that "the troops are few and the roads perilous; it is unwise to advance deep." Zhang Ji said, "Though the roads are perilous, they are not so narrow as Jingxing; the barbarian rabble has no schemer like Zuo Che. Now Wuwei is in danger, and we should hasten there." So he crossed the river. Over seven thousand rebel cavalry intercepted him at the mouth of Zhanyin; Zhang Ji gave out that he would advance by Zhanyin, but secretly sent his troops out by Qieci to reach Wuwei. The Hu, thinking it was a divine army descended, withdrew to Xianmei. Zhang Ji had already taken Wuwei when Fei Yao only then arrived, and Xiahou Ru and the others had not yet come. Zhang Ji rewarded his officers and soldiers and intended to advance and attack the Hu. The generals all said, "The soldiers are weary and the enemy's spirit is high; it is hard to contend with them." Zhang Ji said, "Now the army has no ready provisions and must rely on the enemy to supply them. If the enemy sees our army encircling them and retreats into the deep mountains, then pursuit will be over perilous roads with provisions scarce; and if our army withdraws, they will come out again to plunder. In this way our army will have no peace—as the saying goes, 'Let the enemy go for a single day, and the trouble lasts for generations.'" So he led the army to Xianmei. Several thousand Hu cavalry, taking advantage of a great wind, sought to set fire to the camp, and the officers and soldiers were all afraid. Zhang Ji secretly laid an ambush of three thousand elite troops by night, sent the Adviser Chenggong Ying with over a thousand cavalry to give challenge, and ordered him to feign retreat. The Hu indeed vied to pursue, and Zhang Ji seized the chance to spring his ambush and cut off their rear, attacking front and back to rout the Hu utterly, beheading and capturing them by the tens of thousands ^c:1663. Emperor Wen was greatly pleased and issued an edict: "You crossed the river and braved peril, struck the rested with the toil-worn, and overcame the many with the few; your merit surpasses Nan Zhong's and your toil exceeds Ji Fu's. This achievement not only routs the Hu but forever secures Hexi, so that I shall long be free of westward worries." Zhang Ji was thereupon enfeoffed anew as Marquis of Xixiang, with two hundred households added, making four hundred in all together with the former ^c:1663.

Su Heng of Jiuquan revolted, and together with the Qiang chieftain Lin Dai and over ten thousand Dingling Hu cavalry attacked the border counties. Zhang Ji and Xiahou Ru defeated them, and Su Heng, Lin Dai, and the others all surrendered. Zhang Ji then memorialized to request that he and Xiahou Ru garrison Zuocheng, build fortifications and frontier barriers, and set up beacon towers and granary-depots to guard against the Hu. The Western Qiang were so afraid that they led over twenty thousand of their settlements to surrender ^c:10426. After this, Qu Guang of Xiping and others killed their commandery governor, and the generals all wished to attack them. Zhang Ji said, "It is only Qu Guang and the others who have rebelled; the people of the commandery are not necessarily of one mind with them. If we directly send troops to attack, the officials, people, Qiang, and Hu will surely think the state makes no distinction between right and wrong, and this will instead make them unite—like adding wings to a tiger. Qu Guang and the others wish to use the Qiang and Hu as support; now let us first send the Qiang and Hu to plunder them, with heavy rewards to recruit troops, and let all that is captured belong to them. Thus we weaken their momentum from without and sow division among them from within, and they will surely be settled without battle." Zhang Ji then issued a proclamation to instruct the various Qiang: those who had been misled by Qu Guang and the others would be pardoned, while those able to behead the rebel leaders and present their heads would be rewarded with rank. Thereupon Qu Guang's own subordinates beheaded him and presented his head, and the rest all dwelt in peace as before ^c:10426.

In the Novel

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Zhang Ji's portrayal is largely consistent with history, but his appearances and dialogue are few; he figures mainly as a strategist and local official of Cao Cao's camp. He first appears in chapter 59 ^c:5290: after Cao Cao pacified Guanzhong, on Xiahou Yuan's recommendation he was appointed Intendant of Jingzhao and garrisoned Chang'an together with Xiahou Yuan. The novel gives no detailed account of his early career, instead placing him directly under Cao Cao's command, charged with the important duty of defending the territory.

In the novel, Zhang Ji's traits accord with the historical record of a man "meticulous and decisive, far-sighted in devising strategy, and able to nurture the people and embrace the multitude"; he displays outstanding governing ability and military stratagem. For example, after Cao Cao pacified Guanzhong, Xiahou Yuan recommended Zhang Ji as Intendant of Jingzhao, which accords with the historical record that Zhang Ji "gathered in displaced people and restored counties and towns, so that the people cherished him," highlighting his ability to pacify the people and revive the local economy. However, the novel's depiction of Zhang Ji's specific stratagems and military achievements is somewhat simplified compared with history, dwelling more on his identity as a member of Cao Cao's camp than as an independent decision-maker. For example, Zhang Ji's pivotal role in pacifying the revolts of Liang Province in history, and his strategy of persuading Cao Cao to relocate the people of Hanzhong, are not fully displayed in the novel.

Key Relationships

* Ma Teng: Zhang Ji, dispatched by Zhong Yao, persuaded Ma Teng and his son Ma Chao to join hands with Cao Cao to oppose Guo Yuan and Gao Gan, and in the end defeated them ^c:5289. Later, Zhang Ji, by Cao Cao's command, persuaded Ma Teng to give up his personal troops and return to the court ^c:1661.
* Cao Wei: Zhang Ji was an important official of the Cao Wei regime, rising from Magistrate of Xinfeng, court gentleman for consultation, and Intendant of Jingzhao all the way to Master of Writing, Inspector of Yong Province, and finally Inspector of Liang Province, deeply trusted and esteemed by Cao Cao and Cao Pi. He made great contributions to the stability and development of the Guanzhong and Liang Province regions for Cao Wei ^c:1661.
* Cao Hong: Zhang Ji once joined Cao Hong in defeating Wu Lan at Xiabian ^c:1661.
* Xiahou Yuan: Zhang Ji once joined Xiahou Yuan in campaigning against Song Jian and single-handedly took Lintao and Didao ^c:1661. In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Xiahou Yuan recommended Zhang Ji as Intendant of Jingzhao, and they garrisoned Chang'an together ^c:5290 (novel only).
* Zhong Yao: Zhang Ji served as Zhong Yao's Adviser on Military Affairs, assisting him in handling the affairs of Guanzhong and repeatedly being dispatched by him to take part in military operations ^c:5289.
* Chenggong Ying: Chenggong Ying was Zhang Ji's Adviser; in pacifying the revolt of the Lushui Hu, Zhang Ji sent him to lead cavalry to give challenge and feign retreat, luring the Hu into the ambush and ultimately routing them utterly ^c:1663.

Iconic Scenes

* Persuading Ma Teng to ally with Cao: When Guo Yuan and Gao Gan, joined with the Xiongnu Chanyu, threatened Guanzhong, Zhang Ji, dispatched by Zhong Yao, successfully persuaded Ma Teng and his son Ma Chao to join hands with Cao Cao, together defeating the rebels, beheading Guo Yuan, and forcing the surrender of Gao Gan and the Chanyu ^c:5289. This was a key moment in which Zhang Ji displayed his early political stratagem and powers of persuasion.
* Pacifying displaced people as Intendant of Jingzhao: After Cao Cao pacified Guanzhong, he appointed Zhang Ji Intendant of Jingzhao. Zhang Ji gathered in displaced people and restored counties and towns, enabling the people to live and work in peace, and won their hearts ^c:1661. This period displayed his outstanding governing talent and his contribution to local development.
* Relocating the people of Hanzhong to bolster Guanzhong: After Zhang Lu surrendered, Zhang Ji advised Cao Cao to relocate several tens of thousands of households from Hanzhong to Chang'an and the Three Adjuncts region to bolster the population and strengthen the Guanzhong region ^c:1661. This strategy embodied Zhang Ji's far-reaching strategic vision.
* Pacifying the revolts of Liang Province: In the time of Emperor Wen, the Lushui Hu of Liang Province, Yijian Jiqie, Zhi Yuanduo, and others revolted, and Hexi fell into great turmoil. Zhang Ji took up the charge in this crisis, serving as Inspector of Liang Province and granted the authority to act as expedient. Employing his wits, striking east while feinting west, he ultimately routed the Hu utterly at Xianmei, beheading and capturing them by the tens of thousands, and successfully pacified the situation in Liang Province ^c:1663. Emperor Wen praised him greatly for this, declaring that his "merit surpasses Nan Zhong's and his toil exceeds Ji Fu's," and holding that this achievement "forever secures Hexi, so that I shall long be free of westward worries" ^c:1663.
* Sowing division among Qu Guang's followers: When Qu Guang of Xiping and others killed the commandery governor in revolt, Zhang Ji did not directly send troops to attack but adopted a strategy of sowing division, instructing the various Qiang, pardoning those who had been misled, and richly rewarding those who beheaded the rebel leaders. In the end, Qu Guang's own subordinates beheaded him and presented his head, quelling the revolt ^c:10426. This fully displayed Zhang Ji's trait of being "far-sighted in devising strategy."