Cao Huan

Historical Record（史载）

Cao Huan, styled Jingming, was a grandson of Emperor Wu of Cao Wei, Cao Cao, and a son of Cao Yu, the King of Yan^[1]. In the third year of Ganlu (258), he was enfeoffed as Duke of Changdao Village in Anci County. After the Duke of Gaogui Village, Cao Mao, was killed, the high ministers deliberated and welcomed Cao Huan to be enthroned as emperor. In the sixth month of that year, on the day jiayin, Cao Huan entered Luoyang, paid his respects to the Empress Dowager, and that same day ascended the imperial throne in the Front Hall of the Taiji Palace, granted a general amnesty, changed the reign title, and bestowed noble ranks, grain, and silk upon the people^[1].

After ascending the throne, Cao Huan faced a complex political situation. In the summer, the fifth month of the fourth year of Jingyuan (263), he issued an edict pointing out the plight of Jiang Wei of Shu Han, holding that he "cruelly used his multitudes, yet never abandoned his ambitions," and decided to send the General Who Conquers the West, Deng Ai, to direct the various armies in an attack on Gansong and Dazhong, and the Inspector of Yong Province, Zhuge Xu, to attack Wudu and Gaolou, intending to "advance from east and west together and sweep away Ba and Shu"^[2]. At the same time, the General Who Guards the West, Zhong Hui, was likewise ordered to campaign against Shu by way of the Luo Valley^[2]. In the end, Deng Ai penetrated deep into Shu, beheaded generals and seized banners, made the Latter Lord of Shu Han, Liu Shan, bow his head and bind his own neck in surrender, and at a single stroke pacified Ba and Shu^[3]. For this, Cao Huan issued an edict commending Deng Ai as Grand Commandant, increased his fief by twenty thousand households, and enfeoffed his two sons as marquises of villages^[3]. Zhong Hui too, for his merit, was enfeoffed as Minister over the Masses, advanced to marquis of a county, with an increase of ten thousand households to his fief^[4].

After pacifying Shu, Cao Huan turned his gaze to Eastern Wu. In the winter, the tenth month of the fifth year of Jingyuan (264), on the day dinghai, he issued an edict analyzing the decline of Wu, pointing out that its "government and punishments were brutal and tyrannical, its levies without limit," and that the false general of Jiaozhi, Lü Xing, had already led three commanderies to submit to the imperial cause, the Marquis-Chancellor of Wuling, Yi Yan, and others had united five counties to request becoming subjects, and the mountain folk of Yuzhang and Luling had likewise risen in revolt against Wu. Added to this, with Sun Xiu dead of illness and the commander newly changed, the state was riven by discord, so that he held "from antiquity to the present, there has never been a sign of ruin so extreme as this"^[5]. He sent the Adviser to the Chancellor of State, Xu Shao, and the Water Bureau Clerk, Sun Yu, back to the south to proclaim the national mandate and make known the imperial intent to the men of Wu, intending to subdue the enemy's troops without fighting^[5].

However, Cao Huan's throne was far from secure. The power of the Sima family grew greater by the day, and the standing of the Chancellor of State and King of Jin, Sima Zhao, was already like that of the Son of Heaven. In the fifth month of the fifth year of Jingyuan (264), Cao Huan issued an edict praising Sima Zhao for "spreading abroad his divine designs, his glory covering all within the four seas," and decided to return to Sima Zhao the goods presented by Sun Hao, as a mark of honor. At the same time, the edict commanded that the King of Jin wear a crown with twelve pendant strings, raise the banners of the Son of Heaven, have the way cleared on going out and entry forbidden, ride in a metal-fitted carriage drawn by six horses, be provided with the five-season auxiliary carriages, set up the yak-tail standard and feather canopy, have dances of eight rows of eight, set up the bell-frames and palace chimes, advance his consort to the rank of queen, and his heir to the rank of crown prince^[6]. In the eighth month of that year, on the day xinmao, Sima Zhao died, and his son Sima Yan succeeded to the enfeoffment and inherited the position, comprehensively managing the hundred offices, with all the regalia and registers exactly as before^[6].

In the twelfth month of the second year of Xianxi (265), on the day renxu, Cao Huan issued an edict abdicating the throne in favor of the heir-king of Jin, Sima Yan, as in the precedents of Han and Wei^[7]. He moved his residence to Jinyong City and finally ended his days in his lodge at Ye. According to the Genealogy of the House of Wei, he was enfeoffed as King of Chenliu, died in the first year of Tai'an (302) at the age of fifty-eight, and was given the posthumous title of Emperor Yuan^[7].

In the Novel（演中）

In the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Cao Huan's accession and abdication are given more dramatic color and direct manipulation by the Sima family. After the Duke of Gaogui Village, Cao Mao, was killed, the Grand Tutor Sima Fu requested that Cao Mao be buried with the rites of a king, and Sima Zhao consented. Jia Chong and others urged Sima Zhao to accept the abdication of Wei, but Sima Zhao, comparing himself to King Wen of old, who "held two-thirds of the realm yet still served Yin," declared that he would not accept abdication from Wei^[8]. However, Jia Chong and the others, having already perceived that Sima Zhao intended for his son Sima Yan to succeed, no longer pressed him to advance. In the sixth month of that year, Sima Zhao enthroned the Duke of Changdao Village, Cao Huang, as emperor and changed the reign title to the first year of Jingyuan. Cao Huang changed his name to Cao Huan, styled Jingzhao (differing from the historical "Jingming"), and was a grandson of Emperor Wu Cao Cao and a son of Cao Yu, the King of Yan^[8]. Cao Huan forthwith enfeoffed Sima Zhao as Chancellor and Duke of Jin, and bestowed rich rewards upon him^[8].

In the novel, Cao Huan's image is more that of a puppet of the Sima family's power. After Deng Ai and Zhong Hui pacified Shu, Sima Zhao harbored suspicions of Zhong Hui. When Deng Ai submitted a memorial, Sima Zhao flew into a rage, sent men to the front of Zhong Hui's army to arrest Deng Ai, and personally went on campaign together with the Wei sovereign Cao Huan^[9]. The Western Bureau Clerk Shao Ti once remonstrated that Sima Zhao need not go in person, but Sima Zhao laughed and said that this expedition was in fact on account of Zhong Hui^[9]. This further highlights Sima Zhao's absolute grip on the government, while Cao Huan is merely an accompanying ornament.

Finally, the scene of Sima Yan usurping Wei is depicted especially vividly in the novel. Sima Yan entered the palace bearing his sword and found that the Wei sovereign Cao Huan "had not held court for days on end, his spirit distracted and his bearing at a loss." Sima Yan went straight into the inner palace, and Cao Huan hurriedly descended from the imperial couch to receive him. Sima Yan directly demanded of Cao Huan, "The realm of Wei—whose strength is it owed to?" Cao Huan replied, "All is the bestowal of the King of Jin's father and forefathers." Sima Yan then mocked Cao Huan, saying he "can neither expound the Way in letters nor govern the realm in arms; why not yield it to one of talent and virtue to rule?"^[10]. Facing Sima Yan's coercion of the throne, the Yellow Gate Attendant Zhang Jie stepped forth, denouncing Sima Yan as a "traitor who usurps the state," and stressing that Cao Cao had won the realm with difficulty and that Cao Huan had virtue and no fault. Sima Yan flew into a rage and, on the pretext of "avenging the house of Han," ordered his warriors to beat Zhang Jie to death with cudgels^[10]. Cao Huan wept and knelt in supplication, but was powerless to turn the tide. Jia Chong and Pei Xiu then urged Cao Huan to follow the example of Emperor Xian of Han, to rebuild the Abdication Platform and abdicate the throne to the King of Jin, in order to keep himself safe^[10]. Cao Huan in the end complied, and in the twelfth month, on the day jiazi, personally bearing the imperial seal, abdicated the throne to Sima Yan upon the Abdication Platform^[10]. This series of episodes in the novel depicts Cao Huan's helplessness and the Sima family's overbearing arrogance to the fullest, reinforcing his tragic color as the last emperor.

Key Relationships

* Cao Wei (lord_of): As the last emperor of Cao Wei, Cao Huan was nominally the sovereign of Cao Wei, but real power had long since fallen to the Sima family^[1].
* Sima Yan (betrayed_by): Sima Yan was the sovereign who ultimately replaced Cao Wei and founded the Jin dynasty. Cao Huan, under coercion by Sima Yan, abdicated the throne, marking the fall of Cao Wei^[7].
* Cao Yu (kin_of): Cao Yu was Cao Huan's father, the King of Yan^[1]. In the later period of Cao Wei, Cao Yu was once appointed Grand General by Emperor Ming Cao Rui, but because of his own firm refusal and a change in the emperor's intent, he never grasped real power^[11].
* Cao Cao (kin_of): Cao Huan was a grandson of Cao Cao and inherited the Cao Wei regime that Cao Cao had established, but in the end could not preserve this estate^[1].
* Sima Zhao (controlled_by): In the early period of Cao Huan's reign, Sima Zhao was the actual holder of power in Cao Wei, and Cao Huan's accession and many important decisions were manipulated and influenced by Sima Zhao^[8] (unique to the Romance).
* Deng Ai and Zhong Hui (military_commanders): These two generals, during Cao Huan's reign, were commanded to pacify Shu Han and won illustrious merit for Cao Wei, but their achievements also indirectly consolidated the power of the Sima family^[2].

Signature Scenes

* Ascending the Throne as Emperor: After the Duke of Gaogui Village, Cao Mao, was killed, Cao Huan was welcomed by the high ministers to be enthroned as emperor, ascended the throne in the Front Hall of the Taiji Palace, granted a general amnesty, and changed the reign title to Jingyuan^[1]. This scene marks the beginning of his time as emperor of Cao Wei, while also foreshadowing that he would be a puppet under the ever-swelling power of the Sima family.
* Issuing the Edict to Campaign against Shu: During his reign, Cao Huan issued edicts ordering Deng Ai, Zhong Hui, and other generals to campaign against Shu, finally succeeding in destroying Shu Han^[2]. This was a major military victory for Cao Wei, and one of the few bright spots in Cao Huan's imperial career, even though behind it lay the decisions of Sima Zhao.
* Abdicating the Throne: In the twelfth month of the second year of Xianxi, on the day jiazi, Cao Huan abdicated the throne to the heir-king of Jin, Sima Yan, upon the Abdication Platform, and the Cao Wei regime formally fell^[7]. This is the most signature scene of Cao Huan's life, and a crucial step toward unification in the Three Kingdoms era. In the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, this scene is depicted with even greater tragic grandeur, with Cao Huan facing Sima Yan's coercion of the throne and Zhang Jie killed for speaking out in righteousness, further highlighting Cao Huan's helplessness and sorrow^[10] (unique to the Romance).
* Sima Zhao Personally Leading the Campaign: In the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, after pacifying Shu, Sima Zhao, suspicious of Zhong Hui, personally went on campaign together with the Wei sovereign Cao Huan^[9]. Although the histories make no clear record of Cao Huan accompanying the expedition, the novel vividly displays Cao Huan's subordinate position as emperor and Sima Zhao's absolute control over military and government affairs.