Dong He

Historical Record

Dong He, courtesy name Youzai, was originally registered in Zhijiang of Nan Commandery, though his ancestors had been people of Jiangzhou in Ba Commandery. Amid the great upheaval at the end of the Han, Dong He led his clan westward to migrate to Yi Province. Liu Zhang, the Governor of Yi Province, valued his ability and successively appointed him magistrate of the two counties of Niubi and Jiangyuan, then promoted him to magistrate of Chengdu. At that time the land of Shu was prosperous, and its social customs were extravagant and ostentatious: wealthy households wore lavish clothing and ate fine food, and on matters such as weddings and funerals they would exhaust their family fortunes. Dong He was deeply troubled by this. He led by example, practicing frugality himself, wearing plain clothes and eating coarse fare. He strictly curbed conduct that transgressed ritual propriety and drew up regulations to restrain it; wherever he went, popular customs improved, and the common people both revered him and dared not offend him. However, the powerful magnates within the county came to fear Dong He's strict laws, and they petitioned Liu Zhang to transfer him to the post of commandant of the dependent state of Badong. When Dong He was about to leave office, several thousand clerks and common people, young and old alike, supported one another in begging Liu Zhang to keep him. Liu Zhang finally agreed to retain Dong He for another two years. When that term ended, Dong He was transferred to be Administrator of Yi Province, and he still maintained his upright and frugal manner as ever. In dealing with the Man tribes of Nanzhong, Dong He always held to the principle of treating others with sincerity and open-heartedness, and so he won the deep affection and trust of the people of Nanzhong^[1].

After Liu Bei pacified the land of Shu, he summoned Dong He to serve as Internuncio General in Charge of the Army (zhangjun zhonglangjiang), managing the affairs of the offices of the General of the Left and the Grand Marshal together with the Military Adviser General Zhuge Liang. In handling government affairs, Dong He was able to offer useful counsel and correct what was improper, and he got along harmoniously with Zhuge Liang, the two forming a deep friendship. Dong He held office and drew a salary, whether posted to govern remote regions or participating at court in important national decisions, for more than twenty years; yet down to the time of his death his household had no surplus wealth. When Zhuge Liang later served as Chancellor, in his instructions to subordinates he repeatedly mentioned Dong He. He once said: "One who joins in the management of affairs gathers the thoughts of many to broaden loyal benefit. If one shuns minor disagreements and finds it hard to raise objections, then duties are neglected and harm results. To raise objections and arrive at what is right is like discarding a worn sandal and gaining a pearl or jade. Yet men's hearts suffer from being unable to do this fully; only Xu Yuanzhi was untroubled in this, and Dong Youzai, in joining the management of affairs for seven years, when something was not right, would come back to inform me as many as ten times over. If only people could emulate one-tenth of Yuanzhi's diligence, or Youzai's earnestness, in their loyalty to the state, then I might have fewer faults."^[2] This passage highly praised Dong He's ability, when assisting in military and government affairs, to set aside concern for suspicion and remonstrate repeatedly, offering genuine insight. Zhuge Liang also said: "In the past, when I first associated with Zhouping, I often heard of gains and losses; later, associating with Yuanzhi, I was diligently given guidance; earlier, taking part in affairs with Youzai, every word was given to the fullest; later, serving with Weidu, I was several times remonstrated and restrained. Although my nature is base and benighted and I could not accept all of it, my lasting accord with these four men is enough to show that I do not harbor doubts toward frank speech."^[2] Zhuge Liang's remembrance and esteem for Dong He shows his recognition of Dong He's character and ability. Dong He's son Dong Yun later also became an important official of Shu Han, serving as palace attendant, deeply trusted by the Latter Lord Liu Shan and repeatedly correcting Liu Shan's faults^[3].

In the Novel

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dong He's portrayal appears mainly during Liu Bei's conquest of Yi Province. When Liu Bei's army besieged Luocheng, Liu Zhang dispatched his brother-in-law Fei Guan and Li Yan to lead troops to defend Mianzhu. At this point, the Administrator of Yi Province, Dong He, submitted a memorial to Liu Zhang advising him to borrow troops from Zhang Lu of Hanzhong to relieve the urgent crisis. Liu Zhang was skeptical, holding that Zhang Lu was his hereditary enemy and could not possibly help. Dong He then urged Liu Zhang, pointing out that Liu Bei's army had already approached Luocheng and that Yi Province was in imminent danger; with lips gone the teeth grow cold, and if Zhang Lu could be persuaded by an appeal to mutual interest, he would surely agree to send troops to the rescue. Liu Zhang adopted Dong He's advice and wrote a letter, dispatching an envoy to Hanzhong to seek aid^[4].

However, Zhang Lu in the end did not truly send troops to the rescue; instead he dispatched Ma Chao and Ma Dai, but Ma Chao, beneath the city walls, urged Liu Zhang to surrender rather than assisting in battle. When Liu Zhang learned that Ma Chao had gone over to Liu Bei, he was terrified and wished to open the city and surrender. At this point Dong He again offered counsel, pointing out that the city still held more than thirty thousand troops and that its money and grain were enough to sustain it for a year, and that he should not lightly surrender^[5]. But Liu Zhang's mind was made up; he reasoned that he and his father had been in the land of Shu for more than twenty years without bestowing kindness upon the people, instead bringing on three years of warfare that ravaged the populace, and unwilling to let the people suffer further, he finally decided to open the city and surrender. After Liu Bei became master of Yi Province, he held a great banquet for his ministers and richly rewarded the civil and military officials who had surrendered. Dong He was appointed Internuncio General in Charge of the Army, promoted along with Yan Yan, Fa Zheng, Xu Jing, and others^[6].

The depiction of Dong He in Romance of the Three Kingdoms preserves his identity as Administrator of Yi Province and notes that he was given the important post of Internuncio General in Charge of the Army under Liu Bei, in accord with historical fact. But in the episodes of urging Liu Zhang to borrow troops from Zhang Lu and dissuading Liu Zhang from surrender, Dong He displays his judgment of the times and his loyalty to Liu Zhang; these specific dialogues and episodes have no detailed record in the Records of the Three Kingdoms and belong to the novel's literary invention. Through these episodes, the novel shapes a figure who, even in the moment of crisis for Liu Zhang's faction, could still offer counsel and faithfully fulfill his duty, though ultimately unable to change Liu Zhang's fate.

Key Relationships

* Liu Zhang's faction (serves): Before Liu Bei entered Shu, Dong He served for a long time under Liu Zhang, the Governor of Yi Province, holding posts such as magistrate of Niubi and Jiangyuan, magistrate of Chengdu, and Administrator of Yi Province^[1]. When Liu Zhang's faction faced Liu Bei's assault, Dong He offered counsel to Liu Zhang, advising him to borrow troops from Zhang Lu and dissuading him from surrender, reflecting his loyalty to Liu Zhang (unique to the novel)^[4],^[5].
* Liu Bei's faction (defected_to): After Liu Bei pacified Yi Province, Dong He was summoned and became a member of Liu Bei's faction. Liu Bei recognized his ability and appointed him Internuncio General in Charge of the Army^[7].
* Shu Han (serves): After Liu Bei established the Shu Han regime, Dong He continued to serve as Internuncio General in Charge of the Army, handling military and government affairs together with Zhuge Liang, and was an important official of Shu Han^[2].
* Zhuge Liang (friend_of): Dong He and Zhuge Liang formed a deep friendship while working together. Zhuge Liang repeatedly mentioned Dong He when instructing his subordinates, praising his loyalty and frank counsel—"in joining the management of affairs for seven years, when something was not right, he would come back to inform me as many as ten times over"—and placing him alongside Xu Shu, Hu Ji, and others. He was a friend and colleague Zhuge Liang deeply respected^[2].

Defining Scenes

* Leading by example in frugality and reforming customs: While serving as magistrate of Niubi, Jiangyuan, and Chengdu, faced with the extravagant and ostentatious customs of the land of Shu, Dong He led by example, wearing plain clothes and eating coarse fare, and drew up regulations to curb conduct that transgressed ritual propriety. His upright frugality and strict enforcement of the law improved the customs wherever he went, and the common people both revered him and dared not offend him^[1]. This is an important manifestation of his personal character and governing ability.
* Clerks and people begging him to stay: When Dong He was about to be transferred from the post of magistrate of Chengdu, several thousand clerks and common people, young and old alike, supported one another in begging Liu Zhang to keep him. This scene vividly displays how Dong He won the hearts of the people and how his image of integrity and uprightness was deeply impressed upon them^[1].
* Working with Zhuge Liang and being remembered by him: After Liu Bei pacified Shu, Dong He managed the affairs of the offices of the General of the Left and the Grand Marshal together with Zhuge Liang. After Dong He's death, Zhuge Liang repeatedly, in his instructions to subordinates, gave high praise to Dong He's loyalty, frankness, and diligence in assisting with military and government affairs. Zhuge Liang regarded Dong He as a close friend and colleague to whom he could speak frankly, and encouraged the younger generation to learn from Dong He's earnestness and loyalty^[2]. This reflects not only Dong He's personal character but also his important standing and influence in the Shu Han state.
* Urging Liu Zhang to borrow troops and to refuse surrender: In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, when Liu Bei besieged Yi Province, Dong He advised Liu Zhang to borrow troops from Zhang Lu to relieve the urgent crisis. When Liu Zhang faced the choice of surrender, Dong He again tried to dissuade him, pointing out that the city still had troops and grain and should not be lightly given up (unique to the novel)^[4],^[5]. Although these episodes have no detailed record in the histories, they shape an image of Dong He as one who still faithfully fulfilled his duty in times of crisis, devising plans for Liu Zhang.